Surfism
Muslim Mysticism
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Encyclopedia
Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic:
تصوّف) is defined by
its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam.[1][2][3] A practitioner
of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). They belong to
different ṭuruq or
"orders"—congregations formed around a master—which meet for
spiritual sessions (majalis), in meeting places known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or
tekke.[4] Sufi turuq/orders may
trace many of their original precepts from the Islamic
Prophet Muhammad
through his cousin and son-in-law 'Alī, with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi
who trace their origins through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.[5] Prominent orders include Ba
'Alawiyya, Chishti,
Khalwati, Naqshbandi,
Nimatullahi, Oveyssi, Qadiria
Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya,
Sarwari
Qadiri, Shadhiliyya
and Suhrawardiyya.[6]
Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection
of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad: "Worship and serve Allah as you are
seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you". Sufis
consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form
of Islam. Sufism is opposed by Wahhabi and Salafist Muslims.
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as
"a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it
away from all else but God".[7]
Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi
teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one
can know how to travel into the presence
of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a
variety of praiseworthy traits".[8]
Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam (such as René
Guénon and Cyril Glassé) define Sufism as simply the name for the inner or
esoteric dimension of Islam[1]
which is supported and complemented by outward or exoteric practices of Islam,
such as Islamic law.[9] In this view, "it is absolutely
necessary to be a Muslim" to be a true Sufi, because Sufism's
"methods are inoperative without" Muslim "affiliation".[10] In contrast, author Idries Shah
states Sufi philosophy is universal in nature, its
roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.[11] Some schools of Sufism
in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on
following the Sufi path".[12] Some
Muslim opponents of Sufism also consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[1][13]
Classical Sufis were characterised by their
attachment to dhikr,
(a practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers)[14] and asceticism.
Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the
worldliness of the early Umayyad
Caliphate (661-750 CE[15]). Sufis have spanned several
continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing their beliefs
in Arabic, before spreading into Persian,
Turkish, Indian
languages and a dozen other languages.[16]
Two origins of the word sufi
have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā (صَفا), which in Arabic means "purity". Another
origin is ṣūf (صُوف), "wool", referring
to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore.
The two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who
said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity".[17][18] The wool
cloaks were sometimes a designation of their initiation into the Sufi order.[citation needed] Others have
suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the
bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held
regular gatherings of dhikr.[19]
According to the medieval scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī,
the word sufi is derived from the Greek
word
While all Muslims believe that they are on the
pathway to God and hope to become close to God in Paradise—after death and
after the "Final Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to
draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the Divine
Presence in this life.[23] The chief
aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within
themselves the primordial state of fitra,[24] described in the Qur'an. In this state
nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken with the single motivation
of love of God. A
secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all
notions of dualism or multiplicity, including a conception of an
individual self, and to realize the Divine Unity.[citation needed]
Thus, Sufism has been characterized[by whom?] as the science of
the states of the lower self (the ego), and the way of purifying this lower
self of its reprehensible traits, while adorning it instead with what is
praiseworthy, whether or not this process of cleansing and purifying the heart
is in time rewarded by esoteric knowledge of God. This can be conceived in
terms of two basic types of law (fiqh), an outer law concerned with actions, and an inner law
concerned with the human heart.[citation needed] The outer law
consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial
rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, a bit too broadly, as qanun.
The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the
purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment
with virtues and good character.[25]
Sufism, which is a general term
for Muslim mysticism, was originally
a response to the increasing worldly power of Islamic leaders as the religion
spread during the 8th Century and their corresponding shift in focus towards
materialistic and political concerns.[citation needed] In particular,
Harun
al-Rashid, the fifth Abbasid
Caliph,
attracted negative attention for his lavish lifestyle, including gold and
silver tableware, an extensive harem and numerous slaves and retainers, that
stood in contrast to the relative simplicity of Muhammad's life.[citation needed]
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque
and taught a small band of disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced
by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example of Christian hermits and
monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on God quickly led to
the belief that by quelling the self and through loving ardour for God it is
possible to maintain a union with the divine in which the human self melts
away.[26]
Teaching
To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by
finding a teacher, as the connection to the teacher is considered necessary for
the growth of the pupil. The teacher, to be considered genuine, must have
received the authorization to teach (ijazah) from
another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (silsilah)
leading back to Muhammad.[dubious ][citation needed] It is the
transmission of the divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the
student, rather than of worldly knowledge transmitted from mouth to ear, that
allows the adept to progress. In addition, the genuine teacher will be utterly
strict in his adherence to the Divine Law.[27]
According to Moojan Momen "one of the
most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the "Perfect
Man" (al-Insan al-Kamil). This doctrine states that there will
always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or
Axis, of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to
man and in a state of wilaya (sanctity, being under the protection of
God). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam.[28]
However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shi'ism,
since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the
Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of God's
grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is
taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam".[28]
As a further example, the prospective adherent of
the Mevlevi
Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the
poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a
further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that
instruction.[29]
Some teachers, especially when addressing more
general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive
use of parable,
allegory,
and metaphor.[30] Although approaches to teaching vary among
different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct
personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other,
non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein
Nasr).
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in
agreeing that Sufism cannot be learned through books.[dubious ]
To reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the
disciple live with and serve the teacher for many, many years.[citation needed] For instance, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who
gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order, served his first teacher, Sayyid
Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently
served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. The extreme
arduousness of his spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, as
directed by his teacher, to the weak and needy members of his community in a
state of complete humility and tolerance for many years. When he believed this
mission to be concluded, his teacher next directed him to care for animals,
curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, and assisting them in finding
provision. After many years of this he was next instructed to spend many years
in the care of dogs in a state of humility, and to ask them for support.[31]
In its early stages of development Sufism
effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.[32] According to one perspective, it is
directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that
Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.[33]
Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad,
through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.[34] More prosaically, the Muslim
Conquests had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits,
especially in
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the
esoteric teachings of Sufism were transmitted from Muhammad to those who had
the capacity to acquire the direct experience gnosis of God[citation needed],
which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this
transmission is summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions
in writing are attributed to Uwais
al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan
Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the
earliest generations of Islam. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in
Sufism had a long history already before the
subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât)
in the early Middle Ages.[40]
Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila)
back to Muhammad[citation needed] via his cousin
and son-in-law Ali.[citation needed] The Naqshbandi
order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its
teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[5]
Different devotional styles and traditions
developed over time, reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the
accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these concerned
themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge (gnosis), education
of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching
God through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations (maqâmât)
and more transient spiritual states (ahwâl).
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a
number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and
describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now
available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Hujwiri, and the Risâla
of Qushayri.[41]
Two of Imam Al Ghazali's
greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the
"Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an
and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way
contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment.
This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries,
challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of
texts.[example needed] Ongoing efforts by
both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making
Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time,[42] allowing English-speaking readers to judge
for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
Theoretical Perspectives In Sufism
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two
major branches within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to
differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional
lineages.[53]
On the one hand there is the order from the signs
to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker
begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in
the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active
Self-disclosure or theophany.[54] This
is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand there is the order from the
Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the
seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the
order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine
Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not
replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply
stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily
of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili
orders.[55]
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third
branch, attributed to the late Ottoman
scholar Said
Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i
Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the
understanding that this wont, or sunnah,
proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to
a master of the Sufi way.[56]
Sufi Practices
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely.
This is because an acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in
effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's impediments to
knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a
course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among
Sufi scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be
extremely harmful to undertake any of these practices alone and without formal
authorization.[60]
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous
adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each
day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be
firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad
(such as the "sunna prayers"). This is in accordance with the words,
attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith
Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love
more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases
drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until
I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his
sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot
through which he walks.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a
correct creed (Aqidah),[61] and to embrace
with certainty its tenets.[62] The
seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the
love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of
the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is
outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.)
The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds
which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation,
pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life
allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not
a means for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold
it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state
generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is
not the cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be
obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a
master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far
more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person,
stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali)
solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[63]
Magic has also been a part of Sufi practice,
notably in
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through a
specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications
and aphorisms from hadith
literature and the Qur'an. More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various
layers of meaning.[66] This includes
dhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God. To engage
in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love,
or "to seek a state of godwariness". The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as
the very embodiment of dhikr of God (65:10-11). Some types of dhikr are prescribed
for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a
Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every
circumstance.[67]
Some Sufi orders[68] engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or sema. Sema includes
various forms of worship such as: recitation,
singing (the
most well known being the Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously
the Sufi
whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation,
ecstasy, and trance.[69]
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive
reliance upon Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb
(remembrance of Allah by Heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize
the Arabic name of God, Allah, as having been written on the disciple's heart.[70]
The practice of muraqaba can be likened to
the practices of meditation attested in many faith communities. The word muraqaba
is derived from the same root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb,
meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4: 1 of the Qur'an. Through
muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart,
acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which
is ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the
practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in
concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that
inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full
consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî
anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to
his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he
remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without
likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful,
Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God
bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if
you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition:
"The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you,
wherever you may be".[71]
In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that
have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common
practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great
scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South
Asia, where famous tombs include those of Khoja Afāq, near Kashgar, in
China; Lal Shahbaz Qalander, in Sindh, Pakistan; Moinuddin
Chishti in Ajmer,
India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal
in Sylhet,
Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious
visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly
visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh
Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which is
usually televised on Moroccan National television).
Islam And Sufism
Scholars and adherents of Sufism sometimes
describe Sufism in terms of a threefold approach to God as explained by a
tradition (hadîth)
attributed to Muhammad[citation needed],"The
Canon is my word, the order is my deed, and the truth is my interior
state".[citation needed] Sufis believe
the sharia
(exoteric "canon"), tariqa (esoteric "order") and haqiqa
("truth") are mutually interdependent.[127]
The tariqa, the 'path' on which the mystics
walk, has been defined as[weasel words]
'the path which comes out of the sharia, for the main road is called branch,
the path, tariq.'[clarification needed]
No mystical experience can be realized if the binding injunctions of the sharia
are not followed faithfully first. The tariqa however, is narrower and more
difficult to walk.
It leads the adept, called salik or
"wayfarer", in his sulûk or "road" through different
stations (maqâmât) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhîd,
the existential confession that God is One.[128] Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen Ibn Arabi
mentions, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to
guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law – even if
he manifests miracles that stagger the mind – asserting that his shortcoming is
a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a
person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with
the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law
are preserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')".[129]
The Amman Message,
a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, and adopted by
the Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic
Conference summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international
Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy
of Jeddah, in July 2006, specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a
part of Islam—however the definition of Sufism can vary drastically between
different traditions (what may be intended is simple tazkiah as
opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).[130]
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism